Sex Influenced Trait - Short note

Sex influenced trait occurs in both males and females but it is more common in one sex. It is controlled by an allele that is expressed as dominant in one sex but recessive in the other. This difference in expression is due to hormonal difference between the sexes. Pattern baldness is a sex influenced trait. Many more than women are bald. It is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait in males but as an autosomal recessive trait in females. A heterozygous male is bald but a heterozygous female is not. A woman can be bald only when she is homozygous recessive.

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Reasons for Opposition - Islam

The Quraish were leading tribe in the Arabian Paninsula. They were used to idol worship that the Holy Prophet openly condemend. They took the teachings of Islam as an insult to their religion and the ways of their forefathers.

   The location of the Ka'abah in Makkah gave them an important position as the custodians of the House. It was a source of income for them, particularly the priests, as the pilgrims to the Ka'abah would being rich gifts for their idols. In the rise of Islam, they saw the danger to their dignity and prestige and the loss of the important position which they had held for centuries. Apart from idol worship, adultery, drinking, gambling, murder and plunder were common among the Arabs, Islam condemned all these. Embracing Islam meant discaring these evil practices and adpoting a new mode of life. The Quraish were not at all ready to do that.

     The chiefs, particularly those belonging to the Banu Umayyah, Could not bear that anybody from among the Banu Hashim, the tribe to which the Holy Prophet belonged, should have supremacy over them. They were also of the view that the Quran should have been sent down to some influential person. The Quran says: "Also, they say: why is not this Quran sent down to some leading man in either of the two (chief) cities." (43: 31)

       The Quraish were proud of their chiefs, against whom they were not ready to accept the supremacy of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) who neither had wealth nor sons nor any other sign of worldly power. The Quraish used to say: "Is this the one whom Allah has sent as a messenger?" (25:41)

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Reaction of early Muslims towards persecution

Reaction of early Muslims towards persecution

       The Muslims of early days although limited in number, had very strong faith and belief in Allah and His prophet. They maintained this faith, regardless of the cosequences. For instance, the Muslim slaves who were tortured mercilessly by their masters never renounced their religion, and at times, lost their lives when given an alternative between idol worship and Islam.

        The Muslims were always united under the leadership of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H). Even when persecutions were at their peak, instructions set out by him were followed. When he advised them to migrate to Abyssinia, they migrated with the confidence that the advice of the Holy Prophet can only have a good outcome.

       The Muslims displayed the most amazing qualities of courage, discipline and patience in face of this persecution. It was borne patiently without complaints. The Muslims were forced to live in a valley for three years with women and children without any means of food and water for days at a time but they waited patiently for Allah's help. Although the believers were a very small group of people, they opposed the pagan ideas, defied the idol worshippers and followed a different religion.

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Discovery of Electrons - Cathode Rays of Properties

Discovery of Electrons: 

     At ordinary pressure the air inside the Discharge Tude do not conduct electricity even when the electrodes were connected to a source of very high potential of about 5000 volts.

     If the pressure inside the tube is reduced and a high voltage of 5000 - 10000 is applied, an electric discharge is produced through the gas producing a uniform glow inside the tube. By reducing the pressure in the tube still further to about 0.01 tor thr original glow disappears. Rays are produced which creates fluorescence on the glass wall opposite to the cathode. These rays are called cathode Rays. Cathode rays are actually negatively charged particles.

Properties of Cathode Rays and Discovery of Electrons: 

     Cathode rays are negatively charged.

They produce a greenish fluorescence on striking the wall of the glass tube.

Cathode rays cast shadow when a opaque object is placed in the their path. This proves that they travel in a straight line perpendicular to the surface of cathode.

They rays can drive a small paddle wheel placed in their path. This shows that these rays possess momentum.

Cathode rays can produce X-rays when they strike an anode particularly with large atomic mass. 

Cathode rays can produce heat when they fall on matter e.g. when cathode rays from a concave cathode are focused on a platinum foil, it begins to glows.

Cathode rays can ionize gases.

These rays can pass through a thin metal foil like aluminum or gold foil. They can cause a chemicl change because they have reducing effect.

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Metabolism - Ananolism - Catabolism - Water

Metabolism:

    All the chemical reactions taking place within a cell are collectively called metabolism. Metabolic processes are characterized as anabolism and catabolism.

Anabolism:

        Those reactions in which simpler substances are combined to form complex substances are called anabolic reactions. Anabolic reactions need energy.

Catabolism: 

        Those reactions in which complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones are called catabolic reactions. Catabolic reactions release energy.

Water: 

         Water is the medium of life. It is the most abundant compound in all organisms. It varies from 65 to 89 percent in different organisms.

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Reading Comprehension - Passages - Practice With Exercise

Democratic societies from the earliest times have expected their governments to protect the weal against the strong. No 'era of good feeling' can justify disc haring the police force or giving up the idea of public control over concentrated private wealth. On the other hand, it is obvious that a spirit of self denial and moderation on the part of those who hold economic power will greatly soften the demand for absolute quality. Men are more interested in freedom and security than in an equal distribution of wealth, The extent to which Government must interfere with business, therefore is not exactly measured by the extent to which economic power is concentrated into a few hands. The required degree of government interference depends mainly on whether economic powers are oppressively used, and on the necessity of keeping economic factors in a tolerable state of balance.

              However, with the necessity of meeting all these dangers and threats to liberty, the powers of government are unavoidably increased, whichever political party may be in office. The growth of government is a necessary result  of the growth of technology  and of the problems that go with the use of machines and science. Since the Government in our nation, must take on more powers to meets its problems, there is no way to preserve freedom except by making democracy more powerful.

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Genetic Engineering Of Plants

  Today it is possible to directly alter the genes of organisms. Transgenic plants carry a foreign gene that has been introducted other into their cells so that they have new and different traits. 

       Cotton, corn, potato and soybean plants have been engineered to be resistant to either insect perdition or herbicides that are judged to be environmentally safe. Some corn and cotton plants have been produced that are both insect and herbicides resistant. In 1999, transgenic crops were 'planted on more than 72 million areas world wide and the average is expected to triple in about five years. If crops are resistant to a broad spectrum herbicide then the herbicide can be used to kill the weeds. When herbicide resistant plants were planted, weeds were easily controlled less till age was needed and soil erosion was minimized.

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Salt - Drought and Cold Tolerant Crops

The next step to solve this problem is to produce salt-tolerant crops. It is believed that the prodcution not only of salt but also drought and cold tolerant crops will reduce the need for added farm acreage by increasing agriculturl yields that will provide ... nough for a world population that is expected to nearly double ....2050

Increasing The Food Quality Of Crops: 

        Some progress has also been made to increase the food Auality of crops. Soybeans have been developed that mainly produce the monounsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid, a change that may improve human health. These altered plants also produce Vernolic acid and ricinoleic acid, derivatives of oleic acid that can be used as hardens in plants and plastics. The necessary genes were derived from Verninia and castor bean seeds and were transferred into the soybean genomes.

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Increasing Productivity

Genetic Engineering is also expected to increase productivity. For this purpose, stromata might be alterned to boost carbon dioxide intake or cut down on water loss. The efficiency of the enzymes RuBP carboxylase which captures Co2 in plants could be improved. A team of Japanese scientists is working in introducing the C4 photosynthetic cycle into rice. Unlike C3 plants. C4 plants do well in hot dry weather. These modifications would require a more complete enigneering of plant cells than the single gene transfers that have been done so far.

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Hybridization - Short Note

Hybridization is the crossing of different varieties of plants or even species. It was used to produce plants with desirable traits. Hybridization, followed by vegetative propagation of the mature plants, generated a large number of identical plants with these traits.

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Production Of Salt Tolerant Plant

Production of salt tolerant plant has been a dream of genetic engineer. Recently salt - tolerant Arabidopsis has been produced. For this scientists first identified a gene coding for a channal proteins that transports Na+ along with +H across a vacuole membrane. Isolating Na+ in a vacuole prevents it from interfering with plant metabolism. Then the scientist cloned the gene and used K to genetically engineer plants that overproduce the channel protein. The modified plants thrived (increased) when watered with a salty solution. Irrigation, even into fresh water, inevitably (certainly) leads to a salinization of soil that reduces crop yields. Today, crop production is limited by effects of salinization an about 50% of irrigated levels.

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Marriage to Khadija - Life in Makkah

At that time lived in Makkah, a wealthy and respectable widow, Khadija, daughter of Khuwalid, who was the great grandson of Qussai. She was very impressed by the honesty and goodness of Hazrat Muhammad (P.B.U.H). She was forty years old and twice widowed. She had two sons and a daughter from her previous marriages. On account of her exceptional character, she was known as Tahira, the pious one.

  She requested Hazrat Muhammad (P.B.U.H) to take her merchandise to Syria against a share in the profits. She also sent her slave Maisara with him. He returned from Syria with good Syria with good profits. Maisara also spoke of his dealings to Hazrat Khadija. She was so pleased that she herself made an offer of marriage to him

       Abu Talib accepted the proposal on behalf of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) and shortly, thereafter, he married Hazrat Khadija. At that time he was twenty-five and she was forty. The union proved successful. They had two son and four daughters. Both the sons died in infancy. Of the daughters, only the youngest, Hazrat Fatima survived the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H).

       Hazrat Khadija was the Prophet's (P.B.U.H) only wife till her death at the age of sixty-five in the 10th year of Prophet hood. The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) always retained his love for her. She was buried in Makkah.

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Desert Ecosystem In Pakistan

 In Pakistan the desert ecosystems are found in western Punjab (Mianwali and Bukhar) where it is known as "Thai". In southern Punjab Pur (Cholistan), Khan Pur and Rahim Yar Khan also have deserts.

       In Sindh this desert ecosystem is called "Thar". These biomes are found on every continent often around 20 to 30 north and south latitude and also in the rain shadows of major mountain ranges. Desert includes a variety of environment. At one extreme are certain areas of the Sahara or Chile, where it virtually never rains and there is no vegetation at all.

        The more common deserts, however, are characterized by widely spaced vegetation and large areas of bare ground.

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Torque & Moment Arm

Torque: 

 The turning effect of a force about a certain point is called torque. Torque is the resultant of cross product between position vector of the point of application of the force and the force. It is a vector quantity. In SI units, the unit of torque is N-m. Conventionally clockwise torque is taken as negative and anti clockwise torque is taken as positive. When direction of both r and F are reversed then torque, does not change. In rotational motion, the torque is equal to rate of change of angular momentum. It the body is at rest or rotating with uniform angular velocity, the angular acceleration will be zero. In this case the torque acting on the body will be zero.

Moment Arm: 

   The perpendicular distance between the line of action of force and the axis of rotation is called moment arm.

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Reading Comprehension Exercise (Passage No: 1)

Questions / MCQS 

1. Before man invented writing

A. Literature was passed on by word of mouth.

B. Prayers were considered literature.

C. Literature was just singing and dancing.

D. There was no literature.

2. As for war songs and prayers each generation.

A. Added something of its own to the stock.

B. Blindly repeated the songs and prayers.

C. Composed its own songs and prayers.

D. Repeated what has handed down to it.

3. The first war-song.

A. Was inspired by God.

B. Developed spontaneously.

C. Was a song traditionally handed down.

D. Was composed by leading dancers.

4. The war song evolved out of 

A. Creative inspiration

B. There was no literature

C. Artistic urge

D. Yelling and shouting.

5. Man invented writing because he wanted

A. To be artistic

B. To write war song

C. To write literature

D. To record and communicate

6. The word 'measure' in the context of the passage means.

A. Weight

B. Rhythm

C. Size

D. Quantity

         Answers

1. C

2. A

3. B

4. D

5. D

6. B

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Reading Comprehension - Passages, Practice For Entrance Exam - ECAT and MCAT

The history of literature really began was the earliest of the arts. Man danced for joy round his primitive camp fire after the defeat and slaughter of his enemy, He yelled and shouted as he danced and gradually the yells and shouts became coherent and caught the measure of the dance and thus the first war song was sung. As the idea of God developed prayers were framed. The songs and prayers became traditional and were repeated from one generation to another, each generation adding something of its own. 

       As man slowly grew more civilized, he was compelled to invent some method of writing by three urgent necessities. There were certain things that it is dangerous to forget and which, therefore had to be recorded. It was often necessary to communication with persons who were some distance away and it was necessary to protect one's property by making tools, cattle and so on, in some distinctive manner. So man taught himself to write and having learned to write purely for utilitarian reasons he used this new method for preserving his war songs and his prayers. Of course, among these ancient people, there were only a very few individuals who learned to write, and only a few could read what was written.

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Al-Sadiq and Al-Amin - Life in Makkah

In his early life, the Holy Prophet worked as a shepherd and look care of the family's and neighbour's herds. When he grew up, he started to trade. Unlike other businessmen of the time, he was extremely honest and fair in his dealings. Hazrat Sa'ad, his businessmen partner said: "I was a partner of Muhammad (P.B.U.H) in business. I always found him very honest in his dealings; he never picked quarrels, nor made any false statement" (Allama Shibi Naumani: Sirat-un-Nabi).

   His honesty and truthfulness impressed the people to such an extent that they gave him the titles of Al-Sadiq - The Truthful and Al-Amin - The Truthworthy, They would also entrust their valuables to him for safekeeping. Even after the declaration of Prophethood, they had so much faith in his honesty and truthworthiness that they continued to leave their valuables with him for safe custody.

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Mutation

Mutation is any change in the amount, organizations of content of genetic material. Mutation may be obvious and observable by cytological techniques. Some changes in chromosomes are called chromosomal abberrations. They may be invisible when they are in genes. Both types of mutations when passed from adult to the offspring alter the hereditary instructions.

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Harb-Ul-Fijar - Life in Makkah of Hazrat Muhammad (P.B.U.H)

Hazrat Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was about fifteen years old when a sacrilegious war or Harb-ul-Fijar broke out between the Quraish and Hawazin tribes. The war was so called because it was fought during the sacred months when fighting was forbidden.

     Hazrat Muhammad (P.B.U.H) accompanied his uncles, but he did not take an active part in the war. He only collected the arrows thrown by the enemy and handed them over to his uncles.

      This was a major event in the life of Hazrat Muhammad and one which must have had a great impact on his character. His impression of the war was most probably concerned with the tragic results of the war, the bloodshed and the unnecessary human suffering. Being the first armed conflict that he witnessed, he could not have escaped its influence on his mild and peace loving temperament and he must have developed a very strong and lasting dislike for war.

       At the same time his indirect participation in the war also gave him a military experience that is so vital for any person destined to be a leader of people through a major socio-religious revolution.

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Half-al-Fazul - Life in Makkah of Hazrat Muhammad (P.B.U.H)

As a result of Fijar war thousands of lives were lost. When the leaders of Makkah saw the effects of the war, they formed a league called Half-al-Fazul with the object of maintaining peace in the region; also for suppressing any violence and injustice and for upholding the rights of the weak, the poor and the destitute.

    The alliance was called al-Fuzul after three of the main participants each of whom was called al-Fazal. It is also suggested that this alliance was called al_Fazul because it was made for a noble cause: the name suggests maintaining honour. 

      The Hashimites under the leadership of Zubair bin Abdul Muttalib along with some other tribes assembled in the house of a noble Quraish, Abdullah bin Judan and pledged to stand on the side of the oppressed, whether stranger or citizen, against the oppressor and to remove injustice from the land.

       Hazrat Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was among those who attended the meeting and was so impressed by its noble objectives that he remained loyal to it. Later on, he said; 'I was present in the house of Abdullah bin Judan at so excellent a pact that I would not exchange my part in it for a herd of red, camels; and if now in Islam. I were summoned unto it, I would gladly respond' (Muhammad: Martin Lings)

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Excretion In Plants - Support & Movement

Waste products of catabolism are used by green plants in their anabolic process Green plants do not excrete nitrogenous wastes, on the contrary they recycle breakdown products of nitrogen metabolism. Metabolism of plants is mostly carbohydrate based and its end products CO2 and water and far less harmful than the nitrogenous wastes produced by proteins metabolism in animals.

          Certain substances which accumlate to levels in excess of plants need, such as water, carbon dioxide, oxygen and certain ions, are to be eliminated. Plants get rid of surplus water by losing it in vapour form which diffuse out through stomata.

This process is known as transpiration some land plants exude water from points called hydathodes found at the margins and tip of leaves. This loss of water in liquid form is known as Guttation. It is common in plants growing in tropical rain forests. Green plants in light release oxygen because rate of photosynthesis is much higher than the rate of respiration. In dark plants release carbon dioxide.

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Conditions of Arabia at the time of the birth of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H)

Conditions of Arabia at the time 

of the birth of the 

'Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H)'      

      At the time of the Prophet's (P.B.U.H) birth, the world had completely forgotten the message of the creator and was lost in the wilderness of polytheism. Arabia was steeped in the worst form of idolatry. The Ka'abah was full of idols and every household had its own idol. Stones and trees were also worshipped. There was no belief in life after death and no feeling of responsibility for one's actions. There was no moral code. Drinking, gambling and other vices were common. Widows and orphans were quite helpless and slaves were treated most cruelly. Women were looked upon as property without having any right to inheritance.  They were treated as articles of trade. They could be  bought or sold at will. A man could marry and keep as many women as he could afford. When a man died, his son inherited his wives. Step-mothers could be made legal wives. 

         There was no settled government and no law in the land. The affairs of each tribe were governed by its own chief. There were rivalries among them and people would fight for generations on the slightest excuse.

           Side by side, Arabs had the qualities of heroism, love for liberty, hospitality and eloquence. 

             This period is know as the Age of Ignorance in Arab history.

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Why hydrophytes do not have cuticle on stem or leaves?

  The plants (such as water lily), which are found in freshwater habitat either partly or completely submerged are termed as hydrophytes. They do not have any difficulty in obtaining water. The stems and leaves of hydrophytes generally lack cuticle. Their stomata are large and present on the upper surfaces of leaves.

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Short note on 'Hydrophytes & Halophytes" - Homeostasis

Hydrophytes: 

    The plants (such as water lily) which are found in fresh water habitat either partly or completely submerged are termed as Hydrophytes. They don't have any difficulty in obtaining water. The stems and leaves of hydrophytes generally lack cuticle. Their stomata are large and present on upper surface of leaves.

Halophytes: 

      The plants growing in salt marshes close to sea are termed as halophytes eg: glasswort and cord grass. They have to absorb water from such a soil which has higher salt concentration and low water potential. Halophytes cope with this situation by actively absorbing  salts into their roots. Cells of roots develop lower water potential which brings in water by osmosis. The excess salt can be stored in cells or excreted out from salt glands on the leaves. Salt secreted by some species help them to trap water vapours from the air which is being absorbed in liquid from by leaf cells. 

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Why Plant cell does not burst even if placed constantly in hypnotic solution?

 If a plant cell is placed in pure water or solution of higher water potential than the solution in its vacuole, the water moves from outside the cell (endosmosis) and ultimately into the vacuole. As a result, the cell swells or becomes turgid such as external solution is called hypotonic . Further allowing the cell into such hypotonic medium does not cause art internal hydrostatic pressure or pressure potential due to which further up take of water in cytoplasm is resisted and finally stops.

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Cytokinesis - In Animal and Plant Cell

Cytokinesis In Animal Cell: 

         late telophas the astral micro tubules send signals to region of the cell. Where actin and myosin are activated which form contratile ring, followed by cleavage furrow, which deepens towards the centre of the cells dividing the parent cell into two daughter cells.

Cytokinesis In Plant Cell: 

                        At cytokinesis, in plant of contratile ring a membrane structure phragmoplast is formed from vesicles which originate form golgi complex. These vesicles originate actually during metaphase, line up in the centre of the dividing cell, where they fuse to form phragmoplast at the end of telophase. The membrane of vesicles becomes the plasma membrane of daughter cells. The vesicles also contain materials for future cell wall such as precursors of cellulose and protein.

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Cytoplasmic Organelles & Membrane System

1- Endoplasmic Reticulum: 

      The electron microscope reveals a complex network of channels, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) which extends from plasma membrane to the nuclear membrane. It is an elaborate. tube like system of lipoprotein. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: (a) Agranulated or smooth endiplasmic reticulum (SER) and (b) Rough or granulated endoplasmic reticulum (RER). Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is not associated with ribosomes. It is found in steroid producing cells like adipose cells (fat cells), interstitial cells, glycogen storing cells (liver) and the muscle  cells. Rough or granular endoplasmic reticulum, is heavily coated with ribosomes on its outer surface towards cytoplasmic surface. Rough ER, occurs mostly in protein synthesising cells. Such as those of the mammalian salivary glands and pancreas. Although most cells contain both rough and smooth ER but they vary from cell to cell.

           The endoplasmic reticulum has many important functions. Primarily, it serves as a supporting platform for the ribosomes. The ER forms a structural framework of the cell with increased surface for various metabolic reactions, and they themselves take an active part by means of attached enzymes.

2- Mitochondria

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Detail about ' Chromosomes ' - Kinetochore

Chromosomes are present in the nucleus of the cell. Chromosomes are can only be seen when cells are dividing. In nature cell, each chromosome consists of two very thin threads called chromatids.  They share common point of attachment called centromere, a disc shaped protein struture called Kinetochore is present to which spindle fibres attach during cell division. Centromere has functional relation to movement of chromosome. Chromosome is of thin threads called chromonema, at the beginning of leptotene, a sub stage of meisois. In many species chromonemata exhibit deeper staining region along their lengths giving the threads the appearance of strings of beads, these intensity staining areas are chromomers.

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Secondary growth In Plants - Stems & Roots

Apical or primary growth increases the length of stems and roots. Secondary growth is the increase in diameter of stem and root due to activity of secondary meristem called cambium. Initially the cambium is restricted to a series of small group of cells. The first step in secondary growth involves the linking of these groups to form a ring of cambium, tissue between xylem and phloem. It is achieved by radical cambium, of cambium cells. Cells of cambium ring divide tangentially to form secondary xylem tissues on the inside and secondary phloem on the side. In the stem similar columns of parenchyma are formed within the secondary xylem and phloem forming secondary medullary rays.

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Short note on 'Growth Correlations

The growth of plant organ is related with the growth of other organs which takes place in different directions. This reciprocal relationship is known as correlation.

          Apical dominance is most important correlation found in plants. During growth of apical bud growth of lower axillary bud is suppressed when apical bud is removed the growth of axillary bud is initiated. It means active growth of apices control the development of lateral buds. Auxin is responsible for apical dominance and also for inhibiting the growth of lateral bud. The inhibition of lateral bud is called inhibitory effect. The removal of apex releases the lateral buds from apical dominance is called compensatory effects.

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Symbiosis - Brief Description

Symbiosis:

             There is an association between two organisms, which brings benefit to both the organisms. This association is called Symbiosis.

• Root Nodules:  The legume plants, pea and bean are the hosts to symbiont bacteria, which inhabit roots forming root nodules. The root nodules bacteria fix nitrogen in soil air, converting it into amino acid, which the host uses. In returen, host provides bacteria will food and protection.

• Mycorrhiza:  Mycorrhiza is an association between the roots of plants growing in acid soil and certain fungi. The host is pine, beech or heather and it provides the fungus with an enzymes to digest carbohydrates in leap litter. In return the fungus symbiont passes mineral ions from the soil to the host.

• Mutualism: Both organisms benefit from the relationship Lichens are an example of mutualism. The relationship between insects and flowering plants is another example. The insect gets nectar from the flower, the flowers are able to form the flower, the flowers are able to reproduce because the insects carry pollen from flower to flower.

• Lichens: Lichens are dual organism composed of symbiosis association of algae living within a fungus mycelium. The lichens grow on exposed rock surfaces and air important colonizers of bare ground.

• Communalism: In the type of relationship only one organism benefit form the relationship. The other is not affected at all. For example, sharks may have small fish called remoras attached to them. As the shark feeds, the remores pick up the scarps. The remoras benefits from this relationship the shark is not affected at all.

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The Character Of Happy Life (Summary)

The Character Of Happy Life (Summary)

    This is one of the best known poems of sir Henry wot ten. In this poem he describes the life and character of a really happy person. In his open ion, the happy man in the real sense is he who is slave to none. He is free in his thinking and ideas. He keeps his emotions under his control. He has no lush of name or fame. He does not allow any one to flatter him. He keeps his life free from scandals. He prays God for heavenly rewards. His best companions are religious books and true friends. He is free from all slavish ties. He neither aspires to rise to higher status nor he is afraid of his down fall. In the end sir Henry Wot ten says that from Wordy point of view he has nothing but spiritually he was complete satisfaction. So, happiness is not hidden under the heaps of gold and silver. It is the state of mind which is gained by gallant virtues of life.

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Lucy Gray (Summary)

William Words Worth is great writer of romantic age. He is called the poet  nature for he has interpreted nature in almost all his poems.

     'Lucy Gray' is closer to the northern ballads. It describes the tragedy of a Little girl Lucy Gray. She lived on a wild plain her parents. Once her mother had gone to the nearby town for some work. Her father asked her to go to the town as he felt the coming night would he stormy night. Being an obedient child, she gladly set out for the town but unfortunately the storm came before its expected time. She wandered up and down but she was overtaken by the storm and lost her way.

    When the storm was over and she did not return her parents started searching for her. At last when they were returning home, her mother found the foot-marks of Lucy's feet on the snow. They followed these foot marks till they reached into the middle of a wooden bridge. They found that in the middle of the bridge a plank had been broken and there after the foot prints were not seen. It means she drowned in the stream.

    In the end of the poem, the poet says that since this tragic event, it is the belief of some people that she is still alive. Whenever such strong wind blows, she also comes there and sings a sad song which echoes in the stormy wind and never looks behind.

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Lines From The Deserted Village (Summary)

Oliver Gold Smith is a great poet of his age. He was born in Island. He transferred and Irish to an English setting.

    Is this poem the poet remembers his loveliest village, Auburn and the happy days of his youth. He says that his my village was the most beautiful village of the area. It was very fertile land. The villagers, In spite of hard work and hard life were very happy with their simple delights of life. When ever they were free, they engaged many games and usually used to play these games under the shades of trees. They cut jokes after they physical activities. When they were tired of playing games, they used to take enjoyment from dancing. There were also sights of love making. When sky girls used to look through the corners of their eyes at their lovers.

    In the end the poet regrets that such charms are no more to be seen. All these charms are fled away on account of the fallen prey to social evils and the village has been ruined. The poet says that princes or Lords are not as important as the farmers are. The poet says that the Lords or princes may flourish or may fade, it makes no difference but the farmers who are the back bone of their country, if they arew destroyed, can never be brought back to play their effective role in the development of their country.

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Under The Green Wood Tree (Summary)

William Shakespeare is regarded as the greatest dramatist in English literature. This song is taken from his popular comedy 'As you like it'. The song is sung by lord Amiens in the forest of Arden, living in exile, along with the banished duke.

    In this poem the poet presents a contract between city or court life and the life in the forest. He praises the life of forest and says that there is no one hatch conspiracies against them. They have no rivals in the forest. They are enjoying a very peaceful life. They are exchanging their songs with the happy songs of birds. So, Lord Amiens invites the people to come and join him. He invites those who can  give up the worldly desires, who can bear the heat of sun, who can work with their own hands for their needs of life. They only trouble in the forest is of winter and bad weather. They will have to live under the shed of trees but they will get rid of human hidden enemies. Only they have to face the troubles of season which are common in the forest.

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The Abbot Of Canterbury (Summary)

This poem is written by an anonymous poet which tells us an interesting story about king John, the cruel king of England and the abbot of Canterbury. Once the conspirators poisoned the ears of king John against the abbot  of Canterbury. They informed him that Abbot had grown very rich and he was gaining popularity among of area. Therefore he decided to kill him. King John called the Abbot in his court and put the charge of treason on him. The Abbot refused the charge of treason but he put him three typical questions and laid the conditions. Then he would be beheaded and his property would be confiscated. In the first question King wanted to know his exact price. Secondly how much time it would take him to travel around the world. Thirdly the king asked him what he was thinking at that time King John, how ever, gave him three weeks time.

   The Abbot was very confused. He went to Oxford and Cambridge Universities, but he could not get the answer of the questions. When he was returning towards his home, he met his shepherd who resembled him very much. When he knew the problem of his master, he proposed to appear before king John on behalf of his master.

    At last shepherd appeared in the shape of Abbot before the King. He could not not recognise the shepherd and gave him answer of his questions.

    To the first question, he replied the value of the king was only twenty nine pence and he proved his answer by quoting the example of Christ who was sold for only thirty pence. Secondly, he told the king that he would require only twenty four hours to have a complete round of the earth to prove his answer. Thirdly, he told the king that he was thinking him the Abbot of Canterbury, where as he was his poor shepherd. The king was very pleased by his answers. The King gave him a pension of four nobles a week and pardoned the Abbot of Canterbury.

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Germination & Types of Germination

Germination is a process in which seed becomes awaken (active) and starts growth and development to form seeding.

       Some environmental factors breaks the seed dormancy and it starts to germinat.

Types of Germination: 

1. Epigeal Germination: (Epi=above, Geo = Earth)                                         It is a kind of germination during which cotyledons are carried above the soil. It is due to rapid growth of hypocotyl, which is a region of axis just below cotyledons.                                                                                                  When cotyledons come up above the soil they becomes flat, green and leaf like in appearance. They perform function of photosynthesis after some period cotyledons fall. Epigeal germination occurs in many seed like castor oil seed.
2. Viviparous Germination: It is a type of germination, in which seed germinate inside the fruit, the fruit is still attached to plant nourished. The radicle grows in size, elongated and swells in the lower part and becomes heavy and stouter. When weight of seeding increases, it separates from the mother plant and falls vertically into soft mud below the plant. The seeding become imbibed and start growing viviparous germination is found in those plants which grow in salt lakes, marshy places and coastal region. e.g. Rhizophora, Coconut, Palm etc.

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Rudolf Rassendyll - Character of the Novel (The Prisoner Of Zenda)

Rudolf Rassendyll

Introduction: 

  Rudolf Rassendyll the foremost character of the novel, is the best creation of Anthony Hope Hawkins. Anthony has presented him in such way that he has become immortal in the field of English literature. Anthony Hope has stolen all the sincerity, faithfulness and generosity of this earth to create the character of Rassendyll and make his character to all times to come, a dynamic, smart, handsome and bold hero of the novel, who captures the attention of the reader at the very outset. And as the novel moves our interest grows in his personality. Rassendyll is a young man of about twenty nine and belongs to an aristocratic family. He is highly educated and excellent mark man, skillful sword man and an expert horseman. He is tall, handsome and smart. He has red hair and a long sharp nose, a trait typical of the members of the royal family of Ruritania.

A Cheerful fellow: 

   Rassendyll does not take life seriously. He is rather careless, therefore he is fond of outings, excursions and adventures. But as he begins playing the part of the king of Ruritania, he becomes very serious and sensible.

A daring man: 

  Rassendyll is a brave man and gives evidences of his bravery on many occasions. For instance, while fighting against six hirelings of the Black Michael, he is daring and passes a night in the moat. He is dauntless and goes to see Madam de Mauban in the "Summer House" at her invitation to collect secret information about king, and there he fights with the rogues. In the end of the novel he is fighting in the thick of fight. Even the Marshall praises him for his bravery. Princess Flavia is also enamored of his courage and bravery.

As a Lover: 

  Rassendyll is a carefree youth, but when he falls in love with Flavia, he gives his full devotion to her. He proves himself a true lover and explains through his behavior the real meaning of love, which is complete submission and devotion to the lover. It is the sincerity and nobility of Rassendyll the princess Flavia does not suspect of his impersonation. His love for her is pure, honest and selfless. It is free from lust and selfishness. He sacrifices his love for the will of Flavia and for the real king. It is rightly said, "Love is the supreme experience of life and when it is sacrificed" it is certainly a supreme sacrifice.

A sincere and Unselfish friend: 

  Rudolf Rassendyll is a sincere and unselfish man to the care of his heart. He is completely selfless and is not tempted at all when he becomes the king. He does not wish to remain the king for ever. On the other hand, he is anxious to release the king and handover the reins of Ruritania as soon as possible. He does not show any selfish motive. He tackles even even more awkward situation when the question of solemnization of betrothal with princes Flavia arises after coronation ceremony. In connection with this he finds himself in a very critical situation. In case of refused, he would have displeased the people who loved him. In other case, if he had admitted his relation with Flavia, it would have been dengerous and nobody even Flavia suspect him. In this way maintains the bond of friendship and his dignity.

As a King: 

  Rudolf Rassendyll proves himself worthy of the royal position of the king of Ruritania. He comes to Ruritania as a guest to attend the king's coronation ceremony, but the political events of the Country makes him the king of Ruritania. During his period, he shows his talents, faces probelms very bravely and at last achieves his sacred aim of getting Rudolf Elphberg released, who is make prisoner at Zenda. He plays his role so successfully and seriously that no body knows, it is pnly in the end that princess Flavia is told by Fritz the whole story when Rassendyll gets wounded and falls unconscious.

Conclusion: 

  In view of above, we can say that he is true hero of the novel and no other character in the novel is so sound, noble and worthy of admiration as Rassendyll.

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Act III Of The Silver Box (Summary)

Author:

   John Galsworthy is a well-known novelist and play writer. His work contains a great deal pf criticism of British society, particularly of the values of the well-to-do professional class. As a writer his greatest contribution to the philosophy of his period in his advocacy of solid ism. In plays, short stores as well as novels he has advocated on equitable distribution of wealth. He has great sympathics with the unfortunate, therefore the great novelist Joseph Con red calls him a "Humanitarian Novelist".

Summary: 

   Silver box is a powerful and bitter play. It is a criticism of the English legal system in which a distinction is made between the rich and the poor. The scene starts in London police court. Two little girls, there as lives and mand livens are presented before the magistrate. The charge against them was that they were found wondering about on the road. On enquiry it was found that their father is jobless and their mother had run away with a man leaving them to wonder about. The magistrate heard the statement of their father and the decision was postponed for the next hearing which was to be held after a week.

    After the case, the case of steeling a silver box came up for hearing. Mr. Jones was accused of theft. Mrs. Jones was a maid-servant in the house of Mr. Barth wick, a rich person and also a member of Parliament. His son, Jack is a carefree and dissolute young man. On Easter Monday, Jack reached at his home late at night in a drunken state. He was trying to open the door with the help of key, but failed to do so, On account of taking heavy quantity of wine. Mr. Jones was there, he helped him in opening the door. Jack invited him to his room for a drink. They drank together and jack fell a sleep. Jones was not in a condition to judge between right or wrong. He took the silver cigarette case as well as the purse with the money which was stolen by Jack of a women, and went home. In the morning the matter was reported to the police. A police man went to the house of Mr. Jones to find out the theft. The police man misbehaved Mrs. Jones, on account of this Mr. Jones assaulted the police man and was arrested for this ass ult. The police recovered the stolen things from the house. During the course of trail, it came to light that there was not only one theft. In fact there were two thefts of the same kind. Jack stole the purse of a woman in drunken state, similarly John took  the cigarette case and the stolen purse in a fit of drunkenness. Jones was not a thief because he did not enter the room to steal, but had an invitation from Jack for a drink. Mrs. Jones very strongly pleaded that her husband had never committed theft before.

    The case about Jack was hushed up by his influential father. He insisted that Jones might be tried simply of an ass ult to the police and creating hindrance in
the execution of official duty. So, after a long discussion, the magistrate set at Mrs. Jones free and orders one month imprisonment with hard labour for Mr. Jones, Jack went set free. Even the charge was not framed against him. Mrs. Jones also lost her job and thus a poor family completely destroyed.

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The World As I See It (Summary)

Author: 

  Abbe rt Einstein was born in Germany. He is the most famous scientist, mathematician physicist of the current century. He moved to the United States of America and became an American citizen. He contributed a lot to the field of science. His work was mostly based on reasoning and Mathematics. He was the man who put forward the theory of relativity. On account of his achievements in physics, he was awarded the Noble prize for physics in 1941.

Summary: 

   In the essay " The world as i see it" Einstein has expressed his personal views about the purpose and ideals of life, democracy and dictatorship, war and peace, mystery and religion.

   Eintein says that our stay in this world is very short. The life is not purposeless. We live for the sake of fellow beings because our happiness depends on the smiles and welfare of others. He thinks that his fellowman work very hard in order to make his life comfortable, so he must repay in the same measure. He is against class differences, which he thinks are contrary to justice and are based on force and compulsion. He believes in simple living. Philosophers believes in perfect freedom, but Einstein does not agree with them. He thinks the actions of an individual are determined by environment forces as well as by his natural urges. He believes in the philosophy of Schopenhauer who says that man is not master of his will.
   To author ease and comfort are not good ideals. He is away inspired by the ideals of truth, goodness and beauty. He loves mankind and believes that without the friendship of man life would have been extremely meaningless for him. property, outward success, and luxury are useless in his eyes. He loves solitude because  he thinks that a man can form his opinion habits and judgements without being influenced by any person if he leads a life of solitude. He is against the hero worship. He attributes the causes of the failures of democracy in Europe to the weak and incapable rules. He pays great tribute to the presidential form of government prevalent in America, where a president is elected for a sufficiently long period and en joy's sufficient powers. Therefore, he acts in a responsible manner. 
    He hates war. He says "War seems to me a mean and contemptible thing". He would rather die then take part in such hateful business. Wars break out because the sound sense of the nations has been corrupted by political and commercial interests. According to Einstein mystery is the basis of region. Man has always tried to know unknown and mysterious things results in a religious attitude. In this sense alone, Einstein is deeply religious person because he has tried to know the unknown.

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Fritz Van Tarlenhein - Character of The Novel (The Prisoner of Zenda)

Fritz Van Tarlenhein

Introduction: 

   Fritz Van Tarlenhein belongs to an aristocratic family of standsan. He is a soldier by profession. He is loyal to king and adept in his field. He has a loving heart which is full of sincerity.

Physical appearance: 

   Fritz is young, handsome and attractive. He has a well-built body and has pleasant manners.

As a Friend: 

    As a friend is very sincere. He appreciates Rudolf Rassendyll as he finds in him an openhearted and sincere man. This feeling soon becomes the cause of intimate friendship between the two, which is kept up by the two even Rassendyll leaves Ruritania and goes to England.

A Love able Character: 

   Fritz is young beautiful and has pleasant manners. He is very brave and courageous. He faces difficulties very bravely. He is the type of person whom we love respect, because of his openhearted sympathy and love for those who enter into honest dealings with him. He is most loveable and reliable character of the novel. He plays very active part in releasing the king and resting him to his throne. He earns confidence of his friends in general and of Rassendyll in particular, who loves him as his faithful friend. He is sincere and honest lover. His love for Helga is pure and honest. So he is the most love able character of the novel.

Loyal and Devoted to the King: 

   Fritz is fully devoted the king. he has great love and devotion for the king. When he learns that the king's life and position are in danger, he becomes impatient to help king. As long as the king is prisoner in the castle of Zenda, he is not able to devote his heart to anything except to form schemes and plans for releasing the king.

Conclusion: 

   From the study of Fritz's character we come to know that he is the youngest character of the novel, also very handsome and has pleasing manner. He is a sincere friend and courageous fellow. He has such a love able character that every reader begin to like him.

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Colonel Sapt - Character of The Novel (The Prisoner of Zenda)

Colonel Sapt

Introduction: 

  Colonel Sapt an experienced soldier, is an important character of the novel, "The Prisoner of Zenda". He is one of the faithful servants and well-wishes of king Elphberg. He plays a very active part in releasing the king. He is a short-statured, middle age but well-built man.

As a monarchist: 

   Sapt is a monarchist and serves for the cause of king and country with great  devotion. He is a brave and courageous soldier. Being a monarchist he makes hectic and sincere efforts for the restoration of the throne to Rudolf Elphberg the real king of Ruritania.

A faithful supporter of the king: 

   Colonel sapt is the strongest supporter of the king Rudolf Elphberg. He has great regard and profound love for the king. That is very is why he persuades Rassendyll to impersonate the the king, when Elphberg in under the full influence of wine, and is unable to go for his coronation ceremony. When Elpherg is impersioned in the castle of zenda, then sapt wants Rassendyll keep continue the impersonation to save the throne for the real king. In this way sapt all the schemes of Black Michael.

Very Sagacious Person: 

   Sapt is very sagacious man. He always takes wise steps. It is best quality that keeps him cool head and remains serious in the face of great dangers. He knows how to lead the youth and inexperienced. It is his plan in order to save the throne Rassendyll should impersonate the king. So, it is because of his sagacious steps, the coronation ceremony is not postponed and Michael's evil designers are frustrated.

A sincere and devoted Friend: 

   Colonet sapt is a sincere and devoted friend. With the passage of time he develops profound love for Rassendyll who saves the throne of Ruritania from being by Black Michael. After the restoration of the throne to the real King of Ruritania. When Rassendyll is about to leave. Colonel Sapt becomes very sad with tearful eyes he bids Rassendyll face well at the plate form of the station of Zenda. It is rightly said, sincerity is the essence of true friendship.

Conclusion:

   Colonel Sapt is an important character of the novel. He contributes a great deal in the development of story. We admire him for his courage, sincerity, bravery, wisdom and honesty. He leaves a profound effect on our memory.

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Princes Flavia - Character of The Novel (The Prisoner of Zenda)

Princess Flavia

Introduction:

   Princess Flavia is the most important and sensible female character of the novel. 'The Prisoner of Zenda'. She is angel-like and has bewitching beauty. She is cousin of Rudolf Elphberg, the real king of Ruritania and is the next heir to the throne. She is in her teens, but she is so graceful and dignified that she looks every inch a queen. By virtue of her character that she wins the respect of all those who come in contact with her.

A Polite and Intelligent girl: 

   In her personality and manner, there is a touch of beauty, dignity, love, innocece kindness and selflessness. She is kind-hearted, therefore she cannot see anybody in trouble. She is very intelligent. She knows the evil designers of black Michael, but she keeps her aloof from all sorts of intrigues and plots. As she has sympathetic nature therefore she advised Rassendyll to be aware of the tricks of Black Michael. She is true to her love. Even after Rassendyll leaves for England. She pines for his love and sends him a rose every year through Captain Fritz, as a token of her love.

Her Love and Sincerity: 

   She is the only female character in the novel who brings element of pare and unselfish love in the novel. Her character enlightens the gloomy atmosphere of the novel by bringing in the element of love and sincerity. On account of people wishes, she is to be married Rudolf Elphberg. But she enamored of the qualities and manners of Rassendyll. It is Rassendyll who infuses honest and pure love in her innocent heart. She loves Rassendyll not because he is a king because he commands real respect and her heart and love. In the end when she comes to knows the facts through Captain Fritz, she is shocked very much and swoon to see Rassendyll wounded and unconscious. She sacrifices her love for the ske of the people of Ruritania and for her family and marries Elphberg. It is rightly said love is the surpreme experience of life and when it is a sacrificed, it is certainly a supreme sacrifice.

As a Sensible Lady: 

   Princess Flavia enjoys great popularity among the people of Ruritania. She is kind and possesses good nature. She is sensible enough to know her duty towards her love and her country. She has full control over her passions. She sacrifices her sincere love for the sake of her country. As a sensible lady. She decides to marry Elphberg only to bring peace and joy to her country. She knows the difference between love and duty., love and position. Her  sensibility comes before  when she speaks. "Honour binds a woman too" Rassendyll lies  in being true to my country and my house. I do not know why God has let me love you, but i know that I must Stay.

Conclusion: 

   From the deep study of his character we come to the conclusion she has all good qualities of head and heart. She is not only beautiful but also intelligent and virtuous. She is a picture of true patriot. She sacrifices her love for the sake of her country. She is a marvelous creation of Anthony Hope.

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Madam Antoniette De Mauban - Character of The Novel (The Prisoner of Zenda)

Madam Antoniette de Mauban

Introduction: 

   Madam De Mauban is a rich window. She has very attractive and charming personality. She is not Ruritanian by birth, but she has came from Dresden. She moves in the fashionable circles of society and therefore very well know and popular among elites. Due to her beauty many people are ambitious to win her heart.

An ambitious and shrewd lady: 

   Madam de Mauban is an ambitious lady. She therefore wants to attain high position in life. She aspires to become queen, therefore she wants to marry Black Michael. But when she comes to know of Black Michael's hipocracy, deceit and ambition, she sides with Rudolf Rassendyll and the real king.

Her element of love: 

   She is perfect woman. She is jealous, ambition, selfish and impatient to win her love. When she learns that Duke Michael is flirt and wants to win hand of princess Flavia at all cost, she therefore sends a letter to Rassendyll to see her at the ' Summer house' and collect secret information from her about the captive king and evil designers of the Duke, In this way her jealousy plays a vital role in spoiling the game played by the Duke.

Conclusion: 

   From the study of her character, we come to conclusion that she thinks well before doing any thing. She loves Black Michael and is ambitious enough. She is prepared to do anything to serve her purpose, this lessens her greatness in the eyes of the readers. On the whole she is the complete picture of a woman. She is beautiful charming and has passion love.

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Black Michael - Character of The Novel (The Prisoner of Zenda)

Black Michael (Duke of Strelsan)

Introduction: 

     Black Michael is the villain in the noval. 'Prisoner of Zenda'. He is the half brother of the king. Rudolf Elphberg. He is not the legal heir to the  throne, because his mother belonged to low family. Therefore he is always busy to capture the throne. He is called Black Michael because of his black hair. While the king Rassendyll and Elphberg who belong to the royal family have red hair. His character is also black. Therefore, he is properly called Black Michael.

A very Wicked and Cruel person:

   Michael is very evil person. He does not love and respect his half brother. Rudolf Elphberg at all and tries to get the throne through his wicked plans. So, his employs rough to carry out his schemes. He wants to get Rassendyll murdered by his hirelings and compels him to leave Ruritania. He treats king in a very cruel manner and wants to kill him. This shows his wickedness and lust for power. He is very ambitious and brings about his ruin. His own companion Rupert kills him. Therefore it is evident that he meets his well-deserved end.

A Coward Person:
   Michael is clever but a coward person. He does not have courage to face Rassendyll directly. He nearly always sends his men to kill him or to offer bride. So he is coward and mischief manager. He cannot inspire confidence in his followers. He losses their confidence only because of his ill nature. He has such personality that no body loves him express Madam De Mauban, who loves his passionately and that is also because of  her ambitious, for she wants to be queen. But he exploits her love  and uses her only for his own benefit.
A Villain: 
    Michael is a villain out and out. He is one of those rogues who are born to feather their own nests and exploits and under its sway very few people play the deceiver. But Michael is exception to the general rules. He makes love to Mauban and gives her the promise of marriage but during the very time he tries to win princess Flavia so that his claim to the throne becomes stronger and valid. So, he is very mean person. He wants to kill Elpherg and Rassendyll to get the throne and for this purpose he keeps cut-throats in his castle. So he is rightly called a villain of the novel.
Selfish and Hypocrite: 
    Black Michael is a selfish and hypocrite person. He wants to marry Flavia, just to get the throne. He makes a false of love to king Rudolf to win his favors, but when he gets a chance, he harms him. He pretends to be in love with Madam De Mauban but only loves his own motives and deceives her.
Conclusion: 
   From the study of his character we come to conclusion that he is the most evil character of the novel and so, he is properly being called villain of the novel.

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Rudolf Elphberg - Character of The Novel (The Prisoner of Zenda)

Rudolf Elphberg

Introduction: 

    Rudolf Elphberg is the real king of Ruritania, and is half-brother of Black Michael, who makes him prisoner in the castle of Zenda. He is well-educated and has passed much of his time abroad. He is very fond of wine. When he sees wine before him, forgets every thing. That's why Black Michael succeeds in making him unconscious and then makes him prisoner in the castle. King Elphberg is a young man. He is handsome to look at all and tall and has good looking stature. The distinctive mark about him is that his hair is red in colour and sharp nose. He resembles Rassendyll in physical appearance, but mentally both are quite different.

A Care-free fellow: 

   Rudolf Elphberg is a happy go lucky type of young man, who wants to pass a care free life. He appears before us as a pleasure loving man, whose only interest is in eating, hunting and drinking wine. He also lacks courage, self-confidence and wisdom. He is so careless that he drinks a lot of wine on the eve of his coronation and fell unconscious. This shows that he has no understanding of the political affairs of the country and takes these affairs very lightly.

As a good friend: 

   Rudolf Elphberg cannot be called a bad man, because he has all the qualities of a good friend. He is sincere, hospitable and friendly. He is a very good man from the core of his heart. He is a pleasant tempered man, because when he is in the party with Rassendyll, sapt and fritz, he speaks in a friendly way and does not think himself a king but mingles with them frankly.

A True Lover: 

   The most important point in the character of Elphberg that deserves attention is his love for princess Flavia, his cousin. His love for her is pure and unselfish. He loves her because of her noble qualities of head heart.

Conclusion: 

   On the whole, Rudolf Elphberg is a gentleman and does not hurt any body's feelings. During the imprisonment he behaves rather weakly, but the end he shows his courage by helping Rassendyll in his efforts to release him from prison. He appreciates the efforts of Rassendyll and his companies, and also very grateful to them.

          So, through his simplicity he wants the sympathy of the readers.

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Equilibrium - Physcis

Equilibrium: 

    Shows an iron ring on which two equal forces are acting in opposite directions. Obviously the ring will remain at rest. This shows that both the forces F 1 and F 2 cancel the effect of each other and the ring remains at rest. This is only possible if forces F 1 and F 2 are equal and opposite and acting along the same line. In this case the resultant of these forces is Zero.

    In case the two forces acting on the ring were not equal, the ring would move in the direction of the greater force. In the first case we say that the ring is in equilibrium while in the second one it is not in equilibrium. Every body will be in equilibrium if the forces acting on it must cancel the effect of each other. In order words, there is no unbalanced force acting on the body when it is in equilibrium. This was an example of static equilibrium. 
    For further elaboration of bodies in equilibrium, let us consider a car moving on a road with uniform velocity. Hence also two forces are acting on the car in horizontal direction. The force of engine is acting in the forward direction while the force of friction between road and types is acting backward. These two forces, being equal and opposite cancel the effect of each other and the car moves with uniform velocity. If these forces were not equal, the velocity of the car would not remain uniform. Here the car is an example of dynamic equilibrium. From the above examples it is clear that if a body maintains its state of rest or of uniform motion and does not rotate about its axis of rotation under the influence of these forces then it is said to be in equilibrium. In such a state, the resultant of all the forces acting on the body must be equal to zero and the torque acting on the body must also be zero. The concept of torque will dealt in the next section.
Examples of Bodies In Equilibrium: 
    Consider a book of weight 5 n lying on a table. There are two forces acting on the book. One is the force gravity acting downward and other is the reaction of the table acting upward. As the book is at rest, therefore both the forces cancel the effect of the each other and the book is in equilibrium. This is an example of static equilibrium.

• Two forces act upon the book, the force of gravity downward and equal force by the table upward.
• After a parachute opens and falls a certain distance, it moves downward thereafter with uniform velocity.

     Now consider the jumping of a paratrooper form an Aeroplane. After jumping from the aeroplane, the parachute is not opened for some time. During this period the paratrooper falls freely downward with an acceleration due to gravity of earth. On opening the parachute, the acceleration of the paratrooper will start decreasing due to the reaction of the air acting upward on the parachute. This reaction of air on the parachute depends upon the velocity of the parachute.

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